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Intermediate mathematics
See also: Category:Foundations A generalization (or generalisation) is the formulation of general concepts from specific instances by abstracting common properties. Generalization is the process of identifying the parts of a whole, as belonging to the whole. The parts, completely unrelated may be brought together as a group by establishing a common relation between them.Wikipedia:Generalization Numbers The basis of all of mathematics is the "Next" function (see Graph theory). Next(0)=1, Next(1)=2, Next(2)=3, Next(3)=4...This defines the whole numbers. Repeatedly calling the Next function is defined as addition and its inverse is subtraction. But this leads to the ability to write equations like 1-3=x for which there is no answer among the whole numbers. To provide an answer mathematicians generalize the idea of whole numbers to the set of all integers which includes negative integers. Repeated addition is defined as multiplication and its inverse is division. But this leads to equations like 3/2=x for which there is no answer among integers. So mathematicians generalize the idea of integers to the idea of rational numbers. Repeated multiplication is defined as Exponentiation and its inverse is the nth root. But this leads to 2 problems: :Equations like sqrt(2)=x for which there is no answer among rational numbers so mathematicians generalize the idea of rational numbers to the idea of real numbers. :Equations like sqrt(-1)=x for which there is no answer among real numbers so mathematicians generalize the idea of real numbers to the idea of complex numbers. Complex numbers can be used to represent (and actually perform) rotations but only in 2 dimensions. Bivectors, on the other hand, can be used to represent rotations in any number of dimensions. But, in order to actually use a bivector to rotate a geometric object (like a vector) it was necessary to create an entirely new operation. This new operation is called the geometric product and from it we get Geometric algebra. :Geometric algebra can be generalized to include complex values and the result is Clifford algebra. Geometry The one dimensional number line can be generalized to the idea of multidimensional math (i.e. geometry). Coordinate systems define the length of vectors parallel to one of the axes but leave all other lengths undefined. This concept of "length" is generalized to the idea of the "norm" which works for all vectors. A topological space is a generalization of a metric space which is a generalization of a normed vector space. :A manifold is a generalization of Euclidean space. Multiplication can be generalized to allow for Multiplication of vectors in 2 different ways: :dot product: \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}=\|\mathbf{a}\|\ \|\mathbf{b}\|\cos(\theta) = scalar ::The dot product can be generalized to the bilinear form (B(u,v)=scalar) and its associated quadratic form (Q(x)=B(x,x)). :::The bilinear form can be further generalized to the Sesquilinear form (an inner product is a sesquilinear form). :wedge product: \mathbf{u} \wedge \mathbf{v} = \mathbf{u} \otimes \mathbf{v} - \mathbf{v} \otimes \mathbf{u} = bivector where ⊗ denotes the outer product. ::The wedge product is also called the exterior product. The term "exterior" comes from the exterior product of two vectors not being a vector. ::In three dimensions A∧B is a pseudovector and its dual is A×B (cross product). Multiplication of a vector and a scalar belonging to a field can be generalized to multiplication of a vector and a scalar belonging to a ring. The result is a module (as opposed to a vector space). A mapping is a generalization of a function. A morphism (This leads to category theory) is a generalization of a homomorphism which is a generalization of a linear map which is a generalization of a linear transformation. Tensors seem to be generalizations of multilinear maps. The Tensor product generalizes the outer product. (not to be confused with the exterior product which is sometimes mistakenly called the outer product) Integration The integral (antiderivative) is a generalization of multiplication. :If k is a constant: \int k \cdot x^y \cdot dx = k \cdot \int x^y \cdot dx = k \cdot \frac{x^{y+1}}{y+1} :And conveniently : \int f(x) + g(x) \cdot dx = \int f(x) \cdot dx + \int g(x) \cdot dx ::For example: an object dropped from point r1 to point r2 will release energy but the usual equation mass \cdot gravity \cdot (r_1 - r_2) = energy wont give the correct result if the strength of gravity is itself a function of radius. The strength of gravity at r1 would be different than is is at r2. And in fact g® = 1/r^2 (See inverse-square law.) ::However, the corresponding Definite integral is easily solved: mass \cdot \int_{r_1}^{r_2} g® \cdot dr The derivative is a generalization of division. Partial derivatives and multiple integrals generalize derivatives and integrals to multiple dimensions. The partial derivative with respect to one variable \frac{\part f(x,y)}{\part x} is found by simply treating all other variables as though they were constants. Multiple integrals are found the same way. :Let f(x, y, z) be a scalar function (for example electric potential energy). A 2 dimensional example of a scalar function would be an elevation map. :The Gradient of f(x, y, z) is a vector field whose value at each point is a vector (techically its a covector because it has units of distance-1) that points "downhill" with a magnitude equal to the slope of the function at that point. You can think of it as how much the function changes per unit distance. For static (unchanging) fields the Gradient of the electric potential is the electric field itself. :: \operatorname{grad}(f) = \nabla f = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} \mathbf{i} + \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \mathbf{j} + \frac{\partial f}{\partial z} \mathbf{k} :The Divergence of a vector field is a scalar. The divergence of the electric field is electric charge. Field lines begin and end at charges. In fact the charges create the electric field. :: \operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F} = \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial x}, \frac{\partial}{\partial y}, \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \right) \cdot (F_x,F_y,F_z) = \frac{\partial F_x}{\partial x} +\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial y} +\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z}. :The Laplacian is the divergence of the gradient of a function: :: \Delta f = \nabla^2 f = (\nabla \cdot \nabla) f = \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial z^2}. :The curl of a vector field describes how much the vector field is twisted. The curl at a certain point of a magnetic field is the current vector at that point. In fact current creates the magnetic field. ::curl( \mathbf{F} ) = \nabla \times \mathbf{F} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{i} & \mathbf{j} & \mathbf{k} \\ {\frac{\partial}{\partial x}} & {\frac{\partial}{\partial y}} & {\frac{\partial}{\partial z}} \\ F_x & F_y & F_z \end{vmatrix} ::curl( \mathbf{F} ) = \left(\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial y} - \frac{\partial F_y}{\partial z}\right) \mathbf{i} + \left(\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial z} - \frac{\partial F_z}{\partial x}\right) \mathbf{j} + \left(\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial F_x}{\partial y}\right) \mathbf{k} :The curl of a vector field in 4 dimensions would no longer be a vector. It would a bivector. However the curl of a bivector field in 4 dimensions would still be a vector. The Lie derivative generalizes the Lie bracket which is a generalization of the cross product. The cross product is neither commutative nor associative and therefore doesnt form a field or even a ring (see below). Instead it forms a Lie algebra which is a local or linearized version of a Lie group. Generalization of addition and multiplication :Main article: Algebraic structure Addition and multiplication can be generalized in so many ways that mathematicians were forced to create categories to organize them. References Category:Foundations